Thyroid Cancer Support » testing

How To Calculate Your Risk For Breast Cancer

iwellbc — Sat, 21 Aug 2010 15:11:28 +0000

Using known risk factors for breast cancer, mathematical models can be developed to help answer important questions. These mathematical models are useful tools for researchers and for patients as follows:

1. Research on risk factors – The Claus risk assessment model was used to discover the subpopulation of people who had an autosomal dominant genetic allele that increased their risk from 10% to 92%. This led to the discovery of the BRCA genes associated with breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer. 2. Clinical trial eligibility – The Gail risk assessment model was developed to help researchers determine who to enroll in the NSAPB Breast Cancer Prevention Trials

where chemoprevention was shown to reduce breast cancer risk.

3. Guidelines for doing BRCA testing – BRCA testing is very expensive and practically worthless if done on everyone (because it is so rare to be homozygous for BRCA1 or BRCA2). Mathematical models such as the BRCAPRO, BOADICEA, and Tyrer-Cuzick models can help determine what patients should undergo BRCA testing. The decision for testing is usually made when one of these models predicts a 10% or greater chance that there is a mutation of the BRCA1, BRCA2, or both genes. 4. Guidelines for doing MRI screening for breast cancer - MRI screening for breast cancer is not a cost effective screening test for the general population, but in specific groups, there are clear cut reasons to do so. In general, screening MRI is recommended for women with 20-25% or greater lifetime risk of breast cancer. The BRCAPRO and Tyrer-Cuzick models have been used to help make clinical decisions about ordering MRIs for breast cancer screening. 5. Guidelines for breast cancer therapy - The Gail model is used clinically to help

determine who should be put on tamoxifen or raloxifene for chemoprevention. Other models have been used to help make decisions about breast cancer risk reduction with prophylactic mastectomy.

For these reasons, it is important to understand these models. These models are collectively refered to as “risk assessment tools”. The following paragraphs summarize the most popular and most widely used risk assessment tools. Keep in mind that none of these risk assessment tools apply to breast cancer survivors. No mathematical model has been widely accepted to determine cancer risk in cancer survivors.

General Risk Assessment Tools

Gail Model: The Gail model is a validated risk-assessment model that focuses primarily on nonhereditary risk factors, with limited information on family history. It was developed by scientists at the National Cancer Institute and the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project (NSABP) to assist health care providers in discussing breast cancer risk to determine their eligibility for the Breast Cancer Prevention Trial. The tool allows one to project a woman’s individual estimate of breast cancer risk over a five-year period of time and over her lifetime. It also compares the woman’s risk calculation with the average risk for a woman of the same age. The Gail Model is an on-line quiz that has 13 questions and is interactive. This calculator is based on published risk statistics and methods gathered from peer-reviewed journals, and has been extensively tested for its validity.

The major limitation of the Gail model is the inclusion of only first-degree relatives, which results in underestimating risk in the 50% of families with cancer in the paternal lineage and also takes no account of the age of onset of breast cancer. It may underestimate risk in certain groups, such as obese patients.

National Cancer Institute Model: The NCI risk assessment tool is essentially a simplified Gail Model that also factors in race. Race is a factor in determining breast cancer risk but is excluded when determining eligibility for clinical trials. This tool is probably the most popular risk assessment tool available to the public as an on-line, interactive risk calculator. The on-line quiz is a shorter, nine-point questionnaire that includes multiple factors, giving a woman her future five-year risk of breast cancer and her lifetime risk of breast cancer.

The NCI tool does not account for a lot of risk factors that can be modified. For this reason, it is difficult to use this test as a motivation tool to show people how lifestyle can alter their risk of breast cancer. It also cannot be used in breast cancer survivors, in patients with DCIS, LCIS, or people who carry one of the BRCA genes.

BRCAPRO model: This is a statistical model available as a computer program that uses two different algorithms to evaluate family history and helps a doctor determine the likelihood of finding either a BRCA1 mutation or a BRCA2 mutation in a family. The results of this can be used to determine if BRCA testing is indicated. This is very useful in light of the high cost of BRCA testing ($3,000). None of the nonhereditary risk factors can yet be incorporated into the model, however. In a comparison of four different methods for estimating breast cancer risk in patients with a family history of breast cancer, the BRCAPRO model was the least accurate. It predicted only 49% of the breast cancers that actually occurred in the screened group of patients with a family history of breast cancer.

Harvard Center for Cancer Prevention Risk Assessment Tool: This is another breast cancer risk assessment tool that includes more lifestyle factors than the NCI or Gail Model tools. It has not been studied as extensively as the Gail Model or the simplified NCI model, but it is promising in that it includes many lifestyle factors that people can do to modify their risk of developing cancer. It is also an on-line questionnaire that can be used by both women and men to estimate their breast cancer risk.

Making all this practical

Now after a thorough and confusing discussion of all these statistical models, it’s time to make all this information practical. What is the best way to help a patient accurately assess her risk of breast cancer and if possible, show her what positive factors are reducing her risk and what negative factors can be changed to reduce her risk? If possible, it would also be great to show the patient the value and indications for testing, imaging, chemoprevention, and in some cases surgery. A discussion of the practical aspect of each of these is addressed in a Q & A format below:

Q: What (free) online programs can be used to help a patient assess their risk of breast cancer?

A: Several of the risk assessment tools mentioned above can be accessed for free by the public. Here are the tests and their websites:

1. Your Disease Risk – English version: http://www.diseaseriskindex.harvard.edu

This is a great interactive questionnaire that calculates five-year and lifetime risk of breast cancer developed by the Harvard Center for Cancer Prevention and made public online in 2000. In 2005, they launched the Spanish version of the site, “Cuidar de su Salud”. The risk calculator includes lifestyle factors such as weight, dietary vegetables, alcohol intake, as well as Jewish ethnicity. It does not include other ethnicities, however, and is not accurate for BRCA mutation carriers or breast cancer survivors. Despite these issues, this is by far the best free online risk calculator since it is very interactive and gives you a personalized description of your risk in the form of a colored bar graph, which they can electronically manipulate to experience “virtual” risk reduction. The bar graph is a seven-level scale that compares users to a typical man or woman your age. Users learn where to focus their prevention efforts and how to make lifestyle changes by “clicking on” personalized strategies. With each click, the bar graph shrinks, and the user watches his/her predicted risk drop. This is a great concept to motivate people to participate and comply with lifestyle modification measures.

2. The NCI Risk Assessment Tool -regular web: http://www.cancer.gov/bcrisktool

This is the easy to use, on-line questionnaire based on a modified Gail model that also includes ethnicity. It does not factor in a personal history of breast cancer, DCIS, or LCIS. It does not account for other factors such as BRCA status, hormonal replacement therapy, lifestyle factors, breast feeding, menopause, or mammographic density. Despite these issues, it is a very useful tool that gives a woman her five-year and lifetime risk of breast cancer. It is the only risk assessment tool that can be used via mobile handheld devices (any type). A version of this can be downloaded for PDAs with Windows Pocket PC operating system as well.

Q: What programs can be used to help a doctor make decisions about ordering a breast MRI?

A: The American Cancer Society has developed some very good guidelines for breast cancer screening with MRI. It should be emphasized that MRI is an adjunct to mammography, not a replacement.

1. A Cancer Journal for Clinicians – http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/57/2/75 2. BRCPRO - ver.4.3 available @ http://www4.utsouthwestern.edu/breasthealth/cagene/default.asp

An Overview of Cancer

iwellbc — Sat, 21 Aug 2010 15:11:22 +0000

Cancer is second only to cardiovascular disease as the leading cause of death in the Western world.

Although Cancer is primarily a disease of the elderly with more than 60% of deaths from cancer occurring in those over the age of 65, cancer can strike even the youngest of children.

Cancer appears to occur when the growth of cells in the body is out of control and cells divide too rapidly. Cancer can develop in almost any organ or tissue, such as the lung, colon, breast, skin, bones, or nerve tissue.

Most common sites are:

Prostrate 24%

Breast 13%

Lung 13%

Colon and Rectum 9%

Bladder 3%

Uterus 2.5%

The cause of Cancer is believed to be a combination of genetic factors and outside carcinogens such as tobacco, viruses, infection, asbestos, vinyl chloride, inappropriate diet.

Cancer often has no specific symptoms, so it is important that you limit your risk factors and undergo appropriate cancer screening. The signs and symptoms will depend on where the cancer is, the size of the cancer, and how much it affects the nearby organs or structures.

If a cancer spreads (metastasizes), then symptoms may appear in different parts of the body. As a cancer grows, it begins to push on nearby organs, blood vessels, and nerves. If the cancer is in a critical area, such as certain parts of the brain, even the smallest tumor can cause early symptoms.

But sometimes cancers start in places where it does not cause any symptoms until the cancer has grown quite large. Pancreatic cancers, for example, do not usually grow large enough to be felt from the outside of the body.

By the time a pancreatic cancer causes these signs or symptoms, it has usually reached an advanced stage.

A cancer may also cause symptoms common to many other problems, such as; fever, fatigue and weight loss. This may be because the cancer uses up much of the body s energy or it may cause the release of substances which affect metabolism.

Some lung cancers make hormone-like substances that affect blood calcium levels, affecting nerves and muscles and causing weakness and dizziness.

It is important to know what some of the general (non-specific) signs and symptoms of cancer are, but remember that having any of these does not mean that you have cancer.

Most cancers can be treated and some cured, depending on the specific type, location, and stage. The earlier the cancer is found, the better the prognosis.

A good example of the importance of finding cancer early is melanoma skin cancer. Skin cancer can be easy to remove if it has not grown deep into the skin, and the 5-year survival rate (percentage of people living at least 5 years after diagnosis) at this stage is nearly100%.

Screening for breast cancer with mammograms has been shown to reduce the average stage of diagnosis of breast cancer in a population.

Colorectal cancer can be detected through fecal occult blood testing and colonoscopy, which reduces both colon cancer incidence and mortality, presumably through the detection and removal of pre-malignant polyps.

Similarly, cervical cytology testing (using the Pap smear) leads to the identification and excision of precancerous lesions.

Testicular self-examination is recommended for men beginning at the age of 15 years to detect testicular cancer.

SIGNS and SYMPTOMS

Pain may be an early symptom with some cancers such as bone cancers or testicular cancer.

Long-term constipation, diarrhea, or a change in the size of the stool may be a sign of colon cancer.

Pain with urination, blood in the urine, or a change in bladder function (such as more frequent or less frequent urination) could be related to bladder or prostate cancer.

Skin cancers may bleed and look like sores that do not heal.

A long-lasting sore in the mouth could be an oral cancer and should be dealt with right away, especially in patients who smoke, chew tobacco, or frequently drink alcohol.

Sores on the penis or vagina may either be signs of infection or an early cancer, and should not be overlooked.

Unusual bleeding can happen in either early or advanced cancer.

Blood in the sputum (phlegm) may be a sign of lung cancer.

Blood in the stool (or a dark or black stool) could be a sign of colon or rectal cancer.

Blood in the urine may be a sign of bladder or kidney cancer.

A bloody discharge from the nipple may be a sign of breast cancer.

Many cancers can be felt through the skin, mostly in the breast, testicle, lymph nodes (glands), and the soft tissues of the body. A lump or thickening may be an early or late sign of cancer.

While they commonly have other causes, indigestion or swallowing problems may be a sign of cancer of the esophagus, stomach, or pharynx (throat).

A cough that does not go away may be a sign of lung cancer.

A cancer may be suspected for a variety of reasons, but the definitive diagnosis of most malignancies must be confirmed by histological examination of the cancerous cells by a pathologist.

TREATMENT

Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Radiation therapy may be used to treat almost every type of solid tumor, including cancers of the brain, breast, cervix, larynx, lung, pancreas, prostate, skin, stomach, uterus, or soft tissue sarcomas.

Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific for cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can.

Contemporary methods for generating an immune response against tumours include intravesical BCG immunotherapy for superficial bladder cancer, and use of interferons and other cytokines to induce an immune response in renal cell carcinoma and melanoma patients.

Pain medication, such as morphine and oxycodone, and anti-emetics, drugs to suppress nausea and vomiting, are very commonly used in patients with cancer-related symptoms. transmission and disease.

Advances in cancer research have made a vaccine designed to prevent cancer available. The vaccine protects against four HPV types, which together cause 70% of cervical cancers and 90% of genital warts.

The consensus on diet and cancer is that obesity increases the risk of developing cancer. The cancer-fighting components of food are also proving to be more numerous and varied than previously understood, so patients are increasingly being advised to consume fresh, unprocessed fruits and vegetables for maximal health benefits.

Dysfunctions of the Thyroid

iwellbc — Sat, 20 Mar 2010 08:21:25 +0000

The thyroid gland is a small formation at the base of the throat with a major role in the energetic metabolism of the cells. Diseases of the gland appear when the thyroid cells tend to work to fast or to slow and the adjacent symptoms in the body occur. Most of the thyroid conditions are not age related; though, elder persons tend to suffer from more difficult diseases and much more hard to diagnose because of the connected other affections.

Uncontrolled diabetes, bad nutrition, liver problems, heart failure and cancer are some of the conditions that harden the diagnose of thyroid diseases in older persons. Also heparin and drugs for epilepsy, Parkinson, arthritis and aspirin can produce changes in the thyroid testing even in case of a normal functioning gland. Symptoms of the thyroid dysfunction caused by different factors are often mistaken by aging signs and are commonly overviewed.

Although hyperthyroidism can also occur at any age, hypothyroidism occurs more frequent in elderly people. It represents an under-active condition with a lower secretion and release of thyroid hormones. The most common symptoms encountered in hypothyroidism are dry skin and coarse hair, sensation of cold, loss of the eyebrows and lethargy. Elder persons however can also present neurological signs like shaking and psychological effects such as depression. Other medical conditions and signs of the aging process can make the diagnose of thyroid dysfunction even harder.

The standard treatment for hypothyroidism is the administration of a synthetically hormone called thyroxin or levothyroxin that should bring things back to normal. The cure usually lasts for 6-8 weeks before any signs of improvement appear, but the treatment for hypothyroidism is life-long. Periodical examinations are done to check the efficiency of the drugs.

Hyperthyroidism also known as goiter is the reverse condition and evolves usually with changes in the eye area. The tissues of the gland are overactive or the gland goes to a swelling process. In geographical points like Germany or Eastern Europe hyperthyroidism is mainly caused by the deficiency of Iodine in the drinking water.

Most commonly encountered symptoms of an excessive working thyroid are the loss of weight and appetite, flutter of the whole body, heart failure, sweating, staring eyes, depression, lethargy and confusion. The precise diagnose is established after blood testing for the hormone level but doctors must carefully separate a thyroid condition from other diseases or caused by different medications.

The endocrinologist will firstly recommend drugs to rehabilitate the function of the gland but usually the treatment will last the whole life. Surgical removal of the thyroid or destroying the glandular tissue by radioactive Iodine is some of the methods available. Both ways are relatively risk-free; Iodine can occasionally produce pain, tenderness or thyroid swelling. Surgery is appealed at in case of a very large goiter.

Thyroid cancers are more frequent in old persons but can occur at any age in form of glandular nodules. The treatment will consist of surgery, chemotherapy and external radiotherapy.

For more resources about thyroid or even about thyroid cancer please review this pages http://www.thyroid-info-center.com/thyroid-cancer.htm

Breast Cancer: Prevention and Methods of Early Detection

iwellbc — Thu, 18 Mar 2010 21:21:18 +0000

There is every chance that you, or a family member, colleague, or friend has been affected in some way by breast cancer.

The words ‘breast cancer’ send a chill of fear down everyone’s spine. What is breast cancer and can you prevent it? Here are some facts about breast cancer that every woman should know. You will also learn more about prevention and early detection, especially important if you have a history of cancer in your family.

What Should I Know About Breast Cancer?

There are over two hundred different types of cancer and according to the American Cancer Society breast cancer is the second most common form of cancer in women. While it is also possible for a man to get breast cancer women are 100 times more likely to develop it than men.

There are several forms of breast cancer that occur in different areas of the breast. Most breast cancers are treated with radiation, chemotherapy or surgery. The treatment program determined for any individual depends on the type of cancer, how far it has spread and where it is located. While great strides are taking place in cancer treatment, prevention and early detection are by far the most preferable options.

The statistics are grim. The American Cancer Society reports that 1 in 8 women in the US will experience invasive breast cancer in her lifetime. The chance of dying from breast cancer is one in 33, but that number is decreasing as new forms of treatment and early detection are being implemented.

The good news is that it is possible for women to reduce their risk of dying from breast cancer. When breast cancer is discovered and treated early, the chances for recovery are better.

Women with a high risk should primarily discuss the possible preventive measures currently available with their doctor. However, various simple self-help measures are described below.

Who is Most Likely to Get Breast Cancer?

While every woman has some level of risk there are certain factors that increase the likelihood a person may develop breast cancer. Not having these risk factors does not mean you will not develop cancer just as being at a high risk doesn’t mean you will develop cancer.

Smoking, age and family history are the common factors that are assessed when determining risk.

While smoking can be controlled, age and family history cannot. The older you are the greater the risk that you will develop breast cancer. Almost 8 out of 10 women diagnosed with breast cancer are over 50. If women in your family developed breast cancer you are also at an increased risk.

Certain genetic changes increase the risk that a woman will develop cancer to as high as 80%. Testing for these changes can help a woman and her doctor discuss preventative measures that might be taken.

Caucasian women have a higher risk of developing breast cancer but African-American women more often die from the disease. Asians, Hispanics and American Indian women are less likely to get it.

Starting your period (menstruation) before age 12 or going through menopause after 55 slightly increases the risk.

Having taken the drug DES (diethylstilbestrol), which some women were given in the belief it would prevent them from losing a baby, slightly increases the risk while radiation to the chest earlier in life greatly increases the risk.

Being overweight, use of alcohol, long term use of HRT (hormone replacement therapy) and not having children have all been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer. Using birth control pills may increase the risk and should be discussed with your doctor.

On the other hand exercise, healthy eating (especially reducing the intake of alcohol and red meats) or having had children early in life and breastfeeding for as long as 18 to 24 months have been linked to a reduced risk of developing breast cancer.

What Else Can I Do to Reduce the Risk?

While there are no cures yet, researchers have discovered that a healthy lifestyle is the best way to prevent cancer. Since cancer is a disease that starts in our cells, everything we eat and are exposed to can affect them.

Choose to be a non-smoker and avoid second-hand smoke.

In regards to diet, choose a variety of lower fat, high fiber foods. Studies have shown that intake of total fat, saturated fat and meat are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. Maintain a healthy body weight and limit alcohol consumption.

Protect yourself from the sun.

At home and at work, follow health and safety instructions when using hazardous materials.

The link between an active lifestyle and breast cancer prevention is as yet unclear but general health is improved when regular exercise is an integral part of a person’s lifestyle.

Early Detection

Since early detection is so important it is vital that women learn how to detect lumps in their breasts and understand what precautions must be taken. Those who are more at risk of developing cancer should take extra steps to detect cancer as early as possible.

While a doctor or nurse can show you how to perform a BSE (breast self-exam) the American Cancer Society still recommends that women in their twenties and thirties should have a clinical exam every three years and once a year after 40. In later years most women should also have regular mammograms to catch cancers earlier. But what about the time in between mammograms and clinical exams?

This is when regular self examination is so important.

Every woman should know her own breasts so that any changes are noticed soon and can be checked out by a physician.

Regardless of age, all women should do a monthly breast self-examination a few days after their period. When doing breast self-examination, things to look for include: dimpling or puckering of the skin, swelling, discharges other than milk, bleeding or any other change to the nipple, or the appearance of what is sometimes called ‘orange peel skin’.

Any place in your breasts that feels lumpy or harder than the rest needs to be brought to the attention of a doctor. Most breast problems are not breast cancer and most lumps are not cancerous. When a lump is not cancerous it is referred to as ‘benign’. A cancerous lump is called ‘malignant’. But only a professional clinician can make that diagnosis and it’s no use waiting, worrying and hoping it will go away. Sometimes small lumps, in the early stages, are hard to find, but the earlier a lump is diagnosed, the better, so catch lumps small – don’t wait until they’re large.

Taking care of ourselves, including regular breast examinations, is an ongoing commitment that requires self-discipline and knowledge. It is well worth the effort as early diagnosis is definitely the most important factor in surviving breast cancer.

The Use of Radioactive Scorpion Venom in Fighting Thyroid Cancer

iwellbc — Sun, 14 Mar 2010 20:22:06 +0000

According to the latest experimental studies, heath physicists have encountered safe methods to use a radioactive protein found in scorpion venom to treat thyroid cancer. The venom of a yellow species of scorpions found in Israel is promising to develop into a revolutionary technique to fight different types of tissues affected by cancer.

The Transmolecular Corporation in Cambridge has successfully obtained in the laboratory a radioactive variant of the venom protein. The new substance is called TM-601 and consists of the radioactive substance Iodine-131 and an artificially obtained venom protein. When the artificial compound is released into the blood, the radioactive waves kill the foreign, cancer cells.

Every year, about 17000 persons suffer from this type of cancer and many of them die within the first months of treatment. The new technique promises a remission of the cancer within the first months, after the radioactive compound has been injected into the body. The patient will require no further chemotherapy or traditional therapeutically radiations. The procedure promises a good improvement of the cancer symptoms and a high rate of surviving.

The phase two of the human trial using the new compound shows safe ways of handling the new treatment, even by injecting higher doses of radiations into the cells than during the first stage experiments.

The physician’s duty is to release on the medical market a both safe and legal product with a high index of success. The doctors prescribing this therapy must also protect the family members and the environment of the patient from the radioactivity of the drug.

During the human testing, a group of several patients receive the medication three times within three weeks, while another group gets the therapy six times in six weeks. All patients receive the same quantity of medicine, meaning 200 MCI in the treatment of thyroid cancer. The results are satisfactory compared to other types of therapy used before.

Research scientists discovered that TM-601 is not being assimilated by other tissues besides the cancer cells. The tissue parts near the tumor also receive an amount of radiation but in a lower rate. Before the treatment, patients are administered with high doses of non-radioactive iodine to prevent the assimilation of the drug by the absorbing thyroid, to block the uptake of Iodine-131. The thyroid gland quickly absorbs iodine in normal circumstances.

A part of the radiations received during the treatment are transmitted by the patient’s body to the family members in the first hours after returning from the hospital. However, studies show that the level of radioactive waves spread by the body is not larger than the ones reflected after traditional radioactive therapy.

For more information about thyroid problems or about thyroid treatment please visit this website http://www.thyroid-info-center.com/

DNAffirm Genetic Cancer Scan Testing Kit

iwellbc — Sat, 13 Mar 2010 08:21:56 +0000

Identifies genetic variants linked to below carcinomas
Breast Cancer, Skin Cancer, Lung Cancer, Thyroid Cancer
Colorectal Cancer,Bladder Cancer,Prostate Cancer
Lab Fee of $439 not included
Lab Fee payable only when samples submitted

Product Description
This is an easy to use at home sample collection kit. You submit swabs of your inside cheeks to the Viaguard lab and receive a confidential report in 25 days.

This test encourages understanding risk and empowering prevention via early detection.

This test identifies genetic variants linked to the following carcinomas: Breast Cancer,Skin Cancer, Lung Cancer, Colorectal Cancer, Bladder Cancer, Prostate Cancer, and Thyroid Cancer

Genotyping technologies have enable… More >>

DNAffirm Genetic Cancer Scan Testing Kit

Cancer – An Overview

iwellbc — Fri, 12 Mar 2010 21:21:21 +0000

Cancer is second only to cardiovascular disease as the leading cause of death in the Western world.

Although Cancer is primarily a disease of the elderly with more than 60% of deaths from cancer occurring in those over the age of 65, cancer can strike even the youngest of children.

Cancer appears to occur when the growth of cells in the body is out of control and cells divide too rapidly. Carcinomas can develop in almost any organ or tissue, such as the lung, colon, breast, skin, bones, or nerve tissue.

Most common sites are:

Prostrate 24%
Breast 13%
Lung 13%
Colon and Rectum 9%
Bladder 3%
Uterus 2.5%

The cause of Cancer is believed to be a combination of genetic factors and outside carcinogens such as tobacco, viruses, infection, asbestos, vinyl chloride, inappropriate diet.

Cancer often has no specific symptoms, so it is important that you limit your risk factors and undergo appropriate cancer screening. The signs and symptoms will depend on where the cancer is, the size of the tumor, and how much it affects the nearby organs or structures.

If a cancer spreads (metastasizes), then symptoms may appear in different parts of the body. As a tumour grows, it begins to push on nearby organs, blood vessels, and nerves. If the cancer is in a critical area, such as certain parts of the brain, even the smallest tumor can cause early symptoms.

By the time a pancreatic cancer causes these signs or symptoms, it has usually reached an advanced stage.

A cancer may also cause symptoms common to many other problems, such as; fever, fatigue and weight loss. This may be because the cancer uses up much of the body’s energy or it may cause the release of substances which affect metabolism.

Some lung cancers make hormone-like substances that affect blood calcium levels, affecting nerves and muscles and causing weakness and dizziness.

It is important to know what some of the general (non-specific) signs and symptoms of cancer are, but remember that having any of these does not mean that you have cancer.

Most cancers can be treated and some cured, depending on the specific type, location, and stage. The earlier tumors are found, the better the prognosis.

Screening for breast cancer with mammograms has been shown to reduce the average stage of diagnosis of breast cancer in a population.

Colorectal cancer can be detected through fecal occult blood testing and colonoscopy, which reduces both colon cancer incidence and mortality, presumably through the detection and removal of pre-malignant polyps.

Similarly, cervical cytology testing (using the Pap smear) leads to the identification and excision of precancerous lesions.

Testicular self-examination is recommended for men beginning at the age of 15 years to detect testicular cancer.

SIGNS and SYMPTOMS

Pain may be an early symptom with some cancers such as bone cancers or testicular cancer.

Long-term constipation, diarrhea, or a change in the size of the stool may be a sign of colon cancer.

Pain with urination, blood in the urine, or a change in bladder function (such as more frequent or less frequent urination) could be related to bladder or prostate cancer.

Skin cancers may bleed and look like sores that do not heal.

A long-lasting sore in the mouth could be an oral cancer and should be dealt with right away, especially in patients who smoke, chew tobacco, or frequently drink alcohol.

Sores on the penis or vagina may either be signs of infection or an early cancer, and should not be overlooked.

Unusual bleeding can happen in either early or advanced cancer.

Blood in the sputum (phlegm) may be a sign of lung cancer.

Blood in the stool (or a dark or black stool) could be a sign of colon or rectal cancer.

Blood in the urine may be a sign of bladder or kidney cancer.

A bloody discharge from the nipple may be a sign of breast cancer.

Many cancers can be felt through the skin, mostly in the breast, testicle, lymph nodes (glands), and the soft tissues of the body. A lump or thickening may be an early or late sign of cancer. Self examination is an important diagnostic measure, particularly for breast tumors.

While they commonly have other causes, indigestion or swallowing problems may be a sign of cancer of the esophagus, stomach, or pharynx (throat).

A cough that does not go away may be a sign of lung cancer.

A tumor may be suspected for a variety of reasons, but the definitive diagnosis of most malignancies must be confirmed by histological examination of the cancerous cells by a pathologist.

TREATMENT

Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Pain medication, such as morphine and oxycodone, and anti-emetics, drugs to suppress nausea and vomiting, are very commonly used in patients with cancer-related symptoms. transmission and disease.

Genetic Risk Factors In Breast Cancer

iwellbc — Tue, 09 Mar 2010 09:22:19 +0000

Breast cancer is the most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer deaths in women in the United States. In 2008, approximately 184,450 patients were estimated to be diagnosed with invasive breast cancer, and an estimated 40,930 were estimated to die of this disease. Furthermore, over 50,000 female carcinoma in situ breast cases would have been diagnosed. The etiology of breast cancer is poorly understood with multiple genetic and environmental factors involved in the initiation and progression of cancer.

Scandinavian Twin Study: For years, there has been a hot debate as to whether the cause of breast cancer is genetic or environmental. Then in 2000, Lichtenstein and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden published their study of 44,788 pairs of twins from the Swedish, Danish, and Finnish twin registries. In this study, they looked at cancer risk with 28 different types of cancers and did statistical modeling of genetic and hereditary contributions in eleven different cancer types. For breast cancer, they clearly showed that only 27% of breast cancers were due to genetic factors. This was an even lower hereditary component than other common cancers such as prostate and colorectal. This study and others have confirmed the fact that over 70% of breast cancers are influenced by environmental factors.

BRCA genes: Although much attention has been made about hereditary breast cancer, only two genes are commonly tested for breast cancer risk assessment. These two genes are tumor suppressor genes named “BRCA1″ and “BRCA2″ that are involved with DNA repair. These two genes only account for about 5% of all breast cancers. Because of the Scandinavian twin study, most experts believed that there are other yet to be discovered genes involved with breast cancer. Because the chance of having a BRCA mutation in the general population is so low, genetic testing is not indicated in most patients. However, if a patient has a family history of breast cancer, then a mathematical model can be used to determine if BRCA testing is indicated. The likelihood of being a BRCA carrier increases with the number of relatives who had cancer and if the cancers occurred earlier in life. For example, in families with four or more cases of breast or ovarian cancer under the age of 60, over 80% are found to have a damaged version of BRCA1 or BRCA2. If a patient is a carrier of one or both of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, her risk of breast cancer dramatically increases. According to estimates of lifetime risk, about 13.2% (132 out of 1,000 individuals) of women in the general population will develop breast cancer, compared with estimates of 36-85% (360-850 out of 1,000) of women with an altered BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene. In other words, women with an altered BRCA1 and/or BRCA2 gene are up to eight times more likely to develop breast cancer than women without alterations in those genes. The BRCA1 mutation confers a higher risk than a BRCA2 mutation. Women who inherit a damaged BRCA1 gene have a 60-85% chance of developing breast cancer at some stage in their lives and a 20-40% chance of developing ovarian cancer. For BRCA2, the risks are 40-60% and 10-20%, respectively.

Family History and Breast Cancer: Although the spotlight in hereditary breast cancer has been directed on the BRCA genes, the majority of patients with a family history of breast cancer are BRCA1 and BRCA2 negative. Even in these BRCA negative patients, however, there is an increased risk of developing cancer with a family history of breast cancer. Six factors (unrelated to BRCA genes) have been studied in patients with a family history of breast cancer. They are as follows:

1. Degree of relationship: If the family member with a history of cancer is a first degree relative, the increased risk is much greater than for second degree relatives.

2. Number of relatives who have had breast cancer: People with two or more family members who have had breast cancer are at higher risk than those with only one affected relative.

3. Age of onset of cancer: If the relative developed breast cancer at an early age (pre-menopausal), the risk is higher than if the relative developed post menopausal breast cancer.

4. Bilateral breast cancer: If the relative has a history of bilateral breast cancer, the risk is greater than having a relative with unilateral breast cancer.

5. Gender of the relative: If the family member with breast cancer is a man, the risk is higher.

6. Other related early onset tumors: If there is a family history of early onset ovarian cancer, this incurs an increased risk for a person.

How to decide whether you need the BRCA gene test

The following is an excerpt from the American Society of Breast Surgeons:

1. Early onset breast cancer (diagnosed before age 50)

2. Two primary breast cancers, either bilateral or ipsilateral
3. A family history of early onset breast cancer
4. Male breast cancer
5. A personal or family history of ovarian cancer
6. Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jewish heritage
7. A previously identified BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation in the family

Any one of these features alone indicates a risk for harboring a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. The presence of more than one of these features raises that risk to greater than 10%, the traditional cutoff for recommending a BRCA test. Such patients should have access to BRCA testing. A simple risk-calculation model based on the prevalence of mutations seen among women tested for BRCA mutations is available at http://www.brcacalculator.com.

Types Of Thyroid Cancer

iwellbc — Sun, 07 Mar 2010 20:22:49 +0000

There are different types of thyroid cancer. Each type requires a different type of prognosis and treatment. The different types of thyroid cancer include:

Papillary thyroid cancer Follicular thyroid cancer Medullary thyroid cancer Anaplastic thyroid cancer Thyroid lymphoma

Papillary thyroid cancer – This is the most common type of thyroid cancer; it makes up about 80% of all thyroid cancer cases. Papillary cancer is not age-specific. It can happen at any age, but happens to be common in patients between ages 30 to 50 years of age.

Follicular thyroid cancer - Follicular thyroid cancer usually happens to individuals that are over 50 years of age. Follicular cancer also includes Hurthle cell cancer.

Medullary thyroid cancer - There may be a connection with this type of thyroid cancer and inherited genetic syndromes. These syndromes may, in fact, include tumors in other glands as well. Medullary thyroid cancer happens sporadically.

Anaplastic thyroid cancer - This type of thyroid cancer is even less common. It is also very, aggressive and difficult to treat. This particular type of thyroid cancer occurs in individuals over the age of 60.

Thyroid lymphoma - Thyroid lymphoma is even rarer. It starts in the immune system cells of the thyroid gland. This version of the cancer usually happens in persons over the age of 70.

Risk Factors

Factors that may increase the risk of thyroid cancer include:

Radiation exposure - This includes instances of radiation treatment to the head and neck as well as from exposure to nuclear fallout or even nuclear weapons testing.

Personal/family history of goiter - Goiter is not a cancer. It is the non-cancerous enlargement of the thyroid.

Inherited genetic syndromes - If anyone in the family has a history of medullary thyroid cancer, this could increase the possibility of developing a form of thyroid cancer. If anyone in the family has suffered from multiple endocrine neoplasia and adenomatous polyposis, this too can be a risk factor.

Complications

Recurrences. It is possible for thyroid cancer to return even after a previous instance of the cancer has been removed. How does this happen? If any microscopic cancer cells spread beyond the thyroid gland before its removal, those remaining mutated cells can continue to infect the gland. Such recurrences can even happen many years after thyroid cancer treatment.

Where does thyroid cancer usually occur? It usually happens in the lymph nodes of the neck or in any infected thyroid tissue left behind during surgery. Thyroid cancer can also occur in the lungs or bones.

It is possible to treat recurrences and your doctor will most likely recommend scheduled blood tests or scans to check for signs of any recurrence of the cancer.

Thyroid Cancer in Clinical Practice

iwellbc — Sat, 06 Mar 2010 08:24:47 +0000

Product Description
The book covers all aspects of thyroid cancer, including nodules, pathology, thyroid and whole-body scans, ultrasounds, and other nuclear medicine and radiological studies, as well as follow-up testing and prognosis. It tackles the treatment of differentiated thyroid cancer (the commonest variety) and all aspects of the management including surgery, the role and logistics of radioactive iodine and long-term prescription of thyroid hormone. Also included are images a… More >>

Thyroid Cancer in Clinical Practice